6
This is impossible. No finite number of bits of $f(a_0,\dots,a_n)$ suffices to determine any of $a_0,\dots,a_n$; in fact, any nondegenerate real interval contains the values $f(a_0,\dots,a_n)$ for infinitely many vectors $(a_0,\dots,a_n)\in\mathbb Z^{n+1}$, and this holds even you fix all but two of the $a_0,\dots,a_n$ in advance.
3
If you know that the $a_i$'s are all not too large, and you have a good approximation to $f(a_0,\dots,a_n)$, I think LLL lattice basis reduction could be applicable (I haven't tried to verify the details).
Algorithms for finding integer relations look very closely related, and might possibly be directly applicable.
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